Introduction to New Testament Texts

The New Testament contains a wide variety of writings, from narratives of Jesus' life and ministry to letters written by apostles to early Christian communities. Scholars categorize these texts into various groups based on their genre, authorship, and theological focus. Here we explore the key texts of the New Testament, providing detailed information about their authorship, dating, and major supporting manuscripts, along with any significant controversies surrounding their composition.

The process of how the New Testament came together is complex and spans several centuries. The texts that now form the New Testament were written between approximately 50 AD and 100 AD. However, these texts circulated individually or in small collections among early Christian communities before being formally compiled into a canon. Different Christian groups accepted different texts, and it wasn’t until the 4th century that the canon began to take the shape we know today. Early Christian leaders, such as Irenaeus of Lyons, argued for the inclusion of certain texts while rejecting others, which set the stage for later canonization.

The formal process of selecting and collating the books of the New Testament reached its peak in the 4th century. The Councils of Hippo (393 AD) and Carthage (397 AD) played pivotal roles in approving the final New Testament canon, although earlier lists, such as those from Origen and Eusebius, already outlined most of the current books. However, contrary to popular belief, the Council of Nicaea in 325 AD, which is often mistakenly thought to have been the key moment in determining the canon, primarily dealt with theological issues such as the divinity of Christ and the Arian controversy, not the formal selection of the biblical books themselves.

In addition to the books included in the New Testament, numerous other writings circulated in the early centuries of Christianity. Some of these texts, known as Gnostic Gospels (such as the Gospel of Thomas, the Gospel of Mary, and the Gospel of Judas), offered alternative perspectives on the life and teachings of Jesus. These texts were often excluded from the canon because they were seen as inconsistent with the apostolic teachings or because they emphasized esoteric, hidden knowledge (gnosis), which was contrary to mainstream Christian beliefs about salvation through faith. Despite their exclusion, these texts provide valuable insight into the diversity of early Christian thought and practice.

The exclusion of Gnostic texts, as well as the process of selecting the canonical books, has sparked various theories over the years. One such theory gained popular attention with the release of *The Da Vinci Code* by Dan Brown. According to the novel, the early Church, particularly at the Council of Nicaea, suppressed certain Gnostic texts and truths—such as the supposed marriage of Jesus to Mary Magdalene—because they were seen as a threat to institutional power. However, most historians and scholars regard these claims as speculative and largely fictional, as there is no solid historical evidence to support the idea that the Council of Nicaea engaged in this kind of deliberate suppression. Instead, the selection of the canon was driven by a combination of theological, liturgical, and doctrinal considerations over centuries.

Overall, the formation of the New Testament was a complex process influenced by a variety of factors, including early Christian debates about authority, theology, and the nature of Jesus. While certain extrabiblical texts were excluded, their existence highlights the diverse landscape of early Christian thought, and modern scholarship continues to study both canonical and non-canonical writings to gain a fuller picture of the early Christian world.

Gospels

The Gospels are the four accounts of the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ. These texts form the cornerstone of Christian belief and are the first books of the New Testament. The Gospels were written by different authors, each with a unique perspective, but all focus on the ministry and message of Jesus.

Synoptic Gospels

The first three Gospels—Matthew, Mark, and Luke—are known as the Synoptic Gospels because they share a similar structure and many of the same stories. Scholars believe that the Gospel of Mark was written first, with Matthew and Luke drawing upon it as a source. However, the exact relationship between the Synoptic Gospels is a matter of ongoing scholarly debate.

• Matthew: Traditionally attributed to the apostle Matthew, this Gospel was likely written between 80-90 AD. It emphasizes Jesus as the fulfillment of Old Testament prophecy and is supported by manuscripts such as Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Vaticanus. Scholars date Matthew using a combination of internal evidence and early church testimony. There is debate over whether Matthew used sources like the hypothetical "Q" document or simply drew from Mark and oral tradition.
• Mark: Likely written around 65-70 AD, the Gospel of Mark is considered the earliest Gospel. It is traditionally attributed to John Mark, a companion of Peter. Major manuscripts supporting Mark include Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Alexandrinus. Scholars rely on historical context, such as the fall of Jerusalem in 70 AD, to date the Gospel. Some scholars argue for a later date due to theological development, but most favor an early date based on the text's simplicity and lack of detailed theological reflection.
• Luke: Written by Luke, a companion of Paul, this Gospel was likely composed between 80-90 AD. Like Matthew, Luke is thought to have used Mark and possibly the "Q" source. Manuscripts such as Codex Bezae and Codex Vaticanus support this text. Scholars use both external evidence (early church tradition) and internal evidence (such as references to historical events) to date Luke. Some debate exists over Luke's use of sources and his relationship with Acts, also authored by Luke.

The Gospel of John

John's Gospel stands apart from the Synoptic Gospels with its emphasis on the divinity of Jesus. Traditionally attributed to the apostle John, it was likely written around 90-100 AD. Major manuscripts supporting John include Papyri 66 and 75, along with Codex Sinaiticus. The dating of John is based on internal theological development, including its high Christology, which suggests a later date. Some scholars question its authorship, proposing that it was written by a Johannine community rather than John himself.

Acts of the Apostles

The Acts of the Apostles, written by Luke as a sequel to his Gospel, was likely composed around 80-90 AD. It provides a historical account of the early Christian church. Major manuscripts supporting Acts include Codex Bezae and Codex Alexandrinus. Dating is based on the fact that Acts ends abruptly with Paul’s imprisonment, suggesting it was written before his death, though this is debated. Some scholars question whether the text was revised later, given differences between its Western and Alexandrian manuscript traditions.

Pauline Epistles

The Pauline Epistles are letters written by the apostle Paul to early Christian communities. These letters contain theological teachings and practical advice for Christian living.

Major Pauline Epistles

• Romans: Written around 57 AD, Romans is one of Paul's longest and most theologically rich epistles. It is supported by early manuscripts like P46 and Codex Vaticanus. Scholars generally agree on its authenticity and date, using internal references to Paul’s travels to confirm the timeline.
• 1 Corinthians & 2 Corinthians: These letters, written around 55-57 AD, address specific issues in the Corinthian church. P46 and Codex Sinaiticus support both epistles. Scholars use internal evidence, such as references to Paul's movements, to date these letters, and there is broad agreement about their authenticity.
• Galatians: Likely written around 48-55 AD, Galatians is an early defense of Paul's gospel message. Manuscripts like P46 support this letter. There is some debate over whether Galatians was written before or after the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15), which affects its dating.
• Ephesians: Scholars debate whether Paul himself wrote Ephesians, with some arguing for a later pseudonymous author. It is generally dated between 60-62 AD and is supported by manuscripts like Codex Vaticanus. Internal stylistic differences from other Pauline letters fuel the debate.
• Philippians: Written around 62 AD, Philippians is supported by manuscripts such as P46 and Codex Vaticanus. Most scholars agree on its authenticity and date, though some question whether it is a composite of multiple letters.
• Colossians: The authorship of Colossians is debated, with some attributing it to a later Pauline disciple. It is typically dated around 60-62 AD and supported by manuscripts like Codex Vaticanus. Internal theological and stylistic differences from other Pauline letters contribute to the debate.
• 1 Thessalonians & 2 Thessalonians: 1 Thessalonians is widely considered authentic and is dated around 50 AD, supported by P46 and Codex Vaticanus. 2 Thessalonians is more controversial, with some scholars arguing for pseudonymous authorship due to its eschatological content, which could suggest a later date.

Pastoral Epistles

The Pastoral Epistles (1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, Titus) are traditionally attributed to Paul, but their authorship is heavily debated. Scholars generally date them between 80-100 AD, making Pauline authorship unlikely. Major manuscripts supporting the Pastorals include Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Alexandrinus. Critics point to differences in vocabulary and theology from the undisputed Pauline letters, leading some to propose a later, pseudonymous author.

General Epistles

The General Epistles are addressed to broader Christian audiences rather than specific communities or individuals. These letters deal with issues of faith, perseverance, and the relationship between faith and works.

• Hebrews: The authorship of Hebrews is unknown, with early church tradition attributing it to Paul, though modern scholars reject this. It is typically dated between 60-95 AD, supported by manuscripts like P46 and Codex Vaticanus. The question of authorship and dating remains a major area of controversy.
• James: Attributed to James, the brother of Jesus, this epistle was likely written around 60-80 AD. It is supported by Codex Vaticanus and other early manuscripts. Some debate surrounds whether it was written by James himself or by a later follower.
• 1 Peter & 2 Peter: 1 Peter is generally considered authentic and is dated around 64 AD, supported by P72 and Codex Vaticanus. 2 Peter is more controversial, with many scholars arguing for pseudonymous authorship due to stylistic differences and its late attestation in the manuscript tradition.
• 1 John, 2 John, 3 John: Attributed to the apostle John or a member of his community, these letters are typically dated between 85-95 AD. They are supported by early manuscripts such as P66 and P75. There is little controversy over their authorship, though some scholars propose that they were written by a Johannine disciple.
• Jude: Jude, traditionally attributed to the brother of Jesus, was likely written between 65-80 AD. Its dating is supported by manuscripts like Codex Vaticanus. Some debate exists regarding its relationship with 2 Peter, which appears to borrow heavily from Jude.

Book of Revelation

The Book of Revelation, traditionally attributed to the apostle John, was likely written around 95-100 AD while John was exiled on the island of Patmos. Major manuscripts supporting Revelation include P47 and Codex Alexandrinus. Scholars date Revelation using internal references to persecution under Domitian, though some argue for an earlier date. Its authorship and symbolic content have been the subject of intense debate throughout Christian history.

Conclusion

The New Testament contains a diverse collection of texts, each with its own unique history of composition and manuscript support. Ongoing scholarship continues to explore the origins, authorship, and dating of these writings, deepening our understanding of their role in shaping Christian thought. While much is known, debates over authorship and dating remain a vital part of New Testament studies, offering new insights into these foundational texts.